اول درس مقدمة لغويات
NTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS DISTANCE LEARNING ENGLISH SPECIALISTS
FEMALE GROUP
INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS DISTANCE LEARNING ENGLISH SPECIALISTS
FEMALE GROUP
DR BAKIL ALWALSS
DR BAKIL ALWALSS
INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS هذا
اسم الكتاب
The prescribed book for this course is The Study of Language, by George Yule (third edition 2006, or fourth edition 2010). Cambridge University Press.
Lesson one will cover chapters 3 and 4
Main focus is laid on chapter 3 since chapter 4 build on chapter 3. Therefore, your focus will be for chapter three without ignoring chapter four.
The prescribed book for this course is The Study of Language, by George Yule (third edition 2006, or fourth edition 2010). Cambridge University Press.
Lesson one will cover chapters 3 and 4
Main focus is laid on chapter 3 since chapter 4 build on chapter 3. Therefore, your focus will be for chapter three without ignoring chapter four.
Lecture one
English Phonetics and Phonology
Chapters Three and Four
English Phonetics and Phonology
Chapters Three and Four
طبعا بدينا من شبتر3
Types of phonetics
There are three types of the study of the sounds of language.
Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of sounds.
Auditory Phonetics is the study of the way listeners perceive sounds.
Articulatory Phonetics (the type this lesson is concerned with) is the study of how the vocal tracts produce the sounds.
There are three types of the study of the sounds of language.
Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of sounds.
Auditory Phonetics is the study of the way listeners perceive sounds.
Articulatory Phonetics (the type this lesson is concerned with) is the study of how the vocal tracts produce the sounds.
: Please refer to the diagram in the course book
طبعا الرسمة بالكتاب اوضح ص 27 باستثناء بعض اضافات عليها
هنا ومعروفة لنا لذك ماكتبت بالكتاب
How sounds are made
The air stream released by the lungs goes through the windpipe and comes to the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. The vocal cords are two elastic folds which may be kept apart or brought together. The opening between them is called the glottis. This is the usual state of the vocal cords, when we breathe out. If the tense vocal cords are brought together, the air stream forcing an opening makes them vibrate and we hear some voice. Let us pronounce the sound [z]. Put your finger on the larynx and produce the long [s] sound. You will feel the vibration of the vocal cords and hear voice. Such sounds are called voiced. Now produce a long sound [s]. No vibration is felt, no voice is heard. This is a voiceless sound, which is made with the vocal cords kept apart.
The air stream released by the lungs goes through the windpipe and comes to the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. The vocal cords are two elastic folds which may be kept apart or brought together. The opening between them is called the glottis. This is the usual state of the vocal cords, when we breathe out. If the tense vocal cords are brought together, the air stream forcing an opening makes them vibrate and we hear some voice. Let us pronounce the sound [z]. Put your finger on the larynx and produce the long [s] sound. You will feel the vibration of the vocal cords and hear voice. Such sounds are called voiced. Now produce a long sound [s]. No vibration is felt, no voice is heard. This is a voiceless sound, which is made with the vocal cords kept apart.
How sounds are made cont.
On coming out of the larynx the air passes through the pharynx. The pharyngal cavity extends from the top of the larynx to the soft palate, which directs the air stream either to the mouth cavity or nasal cavity, which function as the principal resonators.The soft palate can be easily seen in a hand mirror. Now open your mouth wide and say the vowel /a:/. Looking into the mirror you will see the soft palate, the very end of which is known as the uvula. The soft palate can easily move. When the soft palate is in its lowered position the air goes up into the nasal cavity and then out through the nose. This is the usual position of the soft palate when we breathe through the nose. This is also the position for the nasal sounds [m, n, ŋ]. If you nip your nose you cannot pronounce these sounds. But as soon as you release the nose the air will continue its way and you will hear the sounds again
On coming out of the larynx the air passes through the pharynx. The pharyngal cavity extends from the top of the larynx to the soft palate, which directs the air stream either to the mouth cavity or nasal cavity, which function as the principal resonators.The soft palate can be easily seen in a hand mirror. Now open your mouth wide and say the vowel /a:/. Looking into the mirror you will see the soft palate, the very end of which is known as the uvula. The soft palate can easily move. When the soft palate is in its lowered position the air goes up into the nasal cavity and then out through the nose. This is the usual position of the soft palate when we breathe through the nose. This is also the position for the nasal sounds [m, n, ŋ]. If you nip your nose you cannot pronounce these sounds. But as soon as you release the nose the air will continue its way and you will hear the sounds again
How sounds are made
The air stream released by the lungs goes through the windpipe and comes to the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. The vocal cords are two elastic folds which may be kept apart or brought together. The opening between them is called the glottis. This is the usual state of the vocal cords, when we breathe out. If the tense vocal cords are brought together, the air stream forcing an opening makes them vibrate and we hear some voice. Let us pronounce the sound [z]. Put your finger on the larynx and produce the long [s] sound. You will feel the vibration of the vocal cords and hear voice. Such sounds are called voiced. Now produce a long sound [s]. No vibration is felt, no voice is heard. This is a voiceless sound, which is made with the vocal cords kept apart.
The air stream released by the lungs goes through the windpipe and comes to the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. The vocal cords are two elastic folds which may be kept apart or brought together. The opening between them is called the glottis. This is the usual state of the vocal cords, when we breathe out. If the tense vocal cords are brought together, the air stream forcing an opening makes them vibrate and we hear some voice. Let us pronounce the sound [z]. Put your finger on the larynx and produce the long [s] sound. You will feel the vibration of the vocal cords and hear voice. Such sounds are called voiced. Now produce a long sound [s]. No vibration is felt, no voice is heard. This is a voiceless sound, which is made with the vocal cords kept apart.
How sounds are made cont.
The teeth ridge is very important in English as many consonants are formed with the tongue touching it or close to it. If you still move the tip of the tongue forward you will feel the teeth. The lower teeth are not very important for making speech sounds, while the upper teeth take part in the production of many of them.
The lips can take up various positions as well. They can be brought firmly together, kept apart, neutral, rounded or protruded forward or spread. All the organs of speech can be divided into two groups:
The teeth ridge is very important in English as many consonants are formed with the tongue touching it or close to it. If you still move the tip of the tongue forward you will feel the teeth. The lower teeth are not very important for making speech sounds, while the upper teeth take part in the production of many of them.
The lips can take up various positions as well. They can be brought firmly together, kept apart, neutral, rounded or protruded forward or spread. All the organs of speech can be divided into two groups:
How sounds are made cont.
The most important organ of speech is the tongue. Phoneticians divide the tongue into four sections, the part which lies opposite the soft palate is called the back part of the tongue; the part facing the hard palate is called the front part of the tongue; the one lying under the teeth ridge is known as the blade of the tongue and its extremity is the tip of the tongue. By the central part of the tongue we mean the area where the front and back meet. The edges of the tongue are known as the rims. The tongue may lie flat or move in the horizontal or vertical directions. It can also change its shape so that the sides are curved up forming a groove.
The most important organ of speech is the tongue. Phoneticians divide the tongue into four sections, the part which lies opposite the soft palate is called the back part of the tongue; the part facing the hard palate is called the front part of the tongue; the one lying under the teeth ridge is known as the blade of the tongue and its extremity is the tip of the tongue. By the central part of the tongue we mean the area where the front and back meet. The edges of the tongue are known as the rims. The tongue may lie flat or move in the horizontal or vertical directions. It can also change its shape so that the sides are curved up forming a groove.
هذه الصورة مالقيتها بالكتاب فصورتها من الفصل
Sound description
Normally sounds are described by applying two criteria: place of articulation and manner of articulation
The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. There may be one place of articulation or focus, or two places of articulation or foci when active organs of speech contact with two points of articulation
Normally sounds are described by applying two criteria: place of articulation and manner of articulation
The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. There may be one place of articulation or focus, or two places of articulation or foci when active organs of speech contact with two points of articulation
Sound description cont.
The manner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. The obstructions may be complete and incomplete. When the obstruction is complete the organs of speech are in contact and the air stream meets a closure in the mouth or nasal cavities as in the production of [ p, b, t, d, k, g, ʧ, ʤ, m, n, ŋ ].
In case of an incomplete obstruction the active organ of speech moves towards the point of articulation and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them as in the production of [f, v, s, z, θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, h, w, l, r, j ].
The manner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. The obstructions may be complete and incomplete. When the obstruction is complete the organs of speech are in contact and the air stream meets a closure in the mouth or nasal cavities as in the production of [ p, b, t, d, k, g, ʧ, ʤ, m, n, ŋ ].
In case of an incomplete obstruction the active organ of speech moves towards the point of articulation and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them as in the production of [f, v, s, z, θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, h, w, l, r, j ].
Place of articulation
Glottal articulation – articulation by the glottis. We use this for one consonant in English. This is /h/ in initial position in house or hope.
Velar articulation – we do this with the back of the tongue against the velum. We use it for initial hard /g/ (as in golf) and for final /ŋ/ (as in gong).
Palatal articulation – we do this with the front of the tongue on the hard palate. We use it for /dʒ/ (as in jam) and for /ʃ/ (as in sheep or sugar).
Alveolar articulation – we do this with the tongue blade on the alveolar ridge. We use it for /t/ (as in teeth), /d/ (as in dodo) /z/ (as in zebra) /n/ (as in no) and /l/ (as in light).
Glottal articulation – articulation by the glottis. We use this for one consonant in English. This is /h/ in initial position in house or hope.
Velar articulation – we do this with the back of the tongue against the velum. We use it for initial hard /g/ (as in golf) and for final /ŋ/ (as in gong).
Palatal articulation – we do this with the front of the tongue on the hard palate. We use it for /dʒ/ (as in jam) and for /ʃ/ (as in sheep or sugar).
Alveolar articulation – we do this with the tongue blade on the alveolar ridge. We use it for /t/ (as in teeth), /d/ (as in dodo) /z/ (as in zebra) /n/ (as in no) and /l/ (as in light).
Place of articulation
Glottal articulation – articulation by the glottis. We use this for one consonant in English. This is /h/ in initial position in house or hope.
Velar articulation – we do this with the back of the tongue against the velum. We use it for initial hard /g/ (as in golf) and for final /ŋ/ (as in gong).
Palatal articulation – we do this with the front of the tongue on the hard palate. We use it for /dʒ/ (as in jam) and for /ʃ/ (as in sheep or sugar).
Alveolar articulation – we do this with the tongue blade on the alveolar ridge. We use it for /t/ (as in teeth), /d/ (as in dodo) /z/ (as in zebra) /n/ (as in no) and /l/ (as in light).
Glottal articulation – articulation by the glottis. We use this for one consonant in English. This is /h/ in initial position in house or hope.
Velar articulation – we do this with the back of the tongue against the velum. We use it for initial hard /g/ (as in golf) and for final /ŋ/ (as in gong).
Palatal articulation – we do this with the front of the tongue on the hard palate. We use it for /dʒ/ (as in jam) and for /ʃ/ (as in sheep or sugar).
Alveolar articulation – we do this with the tongue blade on the alveolar ridge. We use it for /t/ (as in teeth), /d/ (as in dodo) /z/ (as in zebra) /n/ (as in no) and /l/ (as in light).
Place of articulation cont.
Dental articulation – we do this with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper front teeth. We use it for /θ/ (as in think) and /ð/ (as in that). This is one form of articulation that we can observe and feel ourselves doing.
Labio-dental articulation – we do this with the lower lip and upper front teeth. We use it for /v/ (as in vampire).
Labial articulation – we do this with the lips for /b/ (as in boat) and /m/ (as in most). Where we use two lips (as in English) this is bilabial articulation.
Dental articulation – we do this with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper front teeth. We use it for /θ/ (as in think) and /ð/ (as in that). This is one form of articulation that we can observe and feel ourselves doing.
Labio-dental articulation – we do this with the lower lip and upper front teeth. We use it for /v/ (as in vampire).
Labial articulation – we do this with the lips for /b/ (as in boat) and /m/ (as in most). Where we use two lips (as in English) this is bilabial articulation.
Manner of articulation
Stop consonants (because the airflow is stopped) or plosive consonants (because it is subsequently released, causing an outrush of air and a burst of sound) are:
Bilabial voiced /b/ (as in boat) and voiceless /p/ (as in post)
Alveolar voiced /d/ (as in dad) and voiceless /t/ (as in tap)
Velar voiced /g/ (as in golf) and voiceless /k/ as in (cow)
Affricates are a kind of stop consonant, where the expelled air causes friction rather than plosion. They are palatal /tʃ/ (as in cheat) and palatal /dʒ/ (as in jam)
Fricatives come from restricting, but not completely stopping, the airflow. The air passes through a narrow space and the sound arises from the friction this produces. They come in voiced and unvoiced pairs:
Labio-dental voiced /v/ (as in vole) and unvoiced /f/ (as in foal)
Dental voiced /ð/ (as in those) and unvoiced /θ/ (as in thick)
Alveolar voiced /z/ (as in zest) and unvoiced /s/ (as in sent)
Palatal voiced /ʒ/ (as in the middle of leisure) and unvoiced /ʃ/ (as at the end of trash)
Glottal /h/.
Stop consonants (because the airflow is stopped) or plosive consonants (because it is subsequently released, causing an outrush of air and a burst of sound) are:
Bilabial voiced /b/ (as in boat) and voiceless /p/ (as in post)
Alveolar voiced /d/ (as in dad) and voiceless /t/ (as in tap)
Velar voiced /g/ (as in golf) and voiceless /k/ as in (cow)
Affricates are a kind of stop consonant, where the expelled air causes friction rather than plosion. They are palatal /tʃ/ (as in cheat) and palatal /dʒ/ (as in jam)
Fricatives come from restricting, but not completely stopping, the airflow. The air passes through a narrow space and the sound arises from the friction this produces. They come in voiced and unvoiced pairs:
Labio-dental voiced /v/ (as in vole) and unvoiced /f/ (as in foal)
Dental voiced /ð/ (as in those) and unvoiced /θ/ (as in thick)
Alveolar voiced /z/ (as in zest) and unvoiced /s/ (as in sent)
Palatal voiced /ʒ/ (as in the middle of leisure) and unvoiced /ʃ/ (as at the end of trash)
Glottal /h/.
Manner of articulation cont.
Stop consonants (because the airflow is stopped) or plosive consonants (because it is subsequently released, causing Nasal consonants involve closing the articulators but lowering the uvula, which normally closes off the route to the nose, through which the air escapes. There are three nasal consonants in English:
Bilabial /m/ (as in mine)
Alveolar /n/ (as in nine)
Velar /ŋ/ (as at the end of gong).
Lateral consonants allow the air to escape at the sides of the tongue. In English there is only one such sound, which is alveolar /l/ (as at the start of lamp). Sometimes is grouped with approximants.
Approximants do not impede the flow of air. They are all voiced but are counted as consonants chiefly because of how they function in syllables. They are:
Bilabial /w/ (as in water)
Alveolar /r/ (as in road)
Palatal /j/ (as in yet)
Stop consonants (because the airflow is stopped) or plosive consonants (because it is subsequently released, causing Nasal consonants involve closing the articulators but lowering the uvula, which normally closes off the route to the nose, through which the air escapes. There are three nasal consonants in English:
Bilabial /m/ (as in mine)
Alveolar /n/ (as in nine)
Velar /ŋ/ (as at the end of gong).
Lateral consonants allow the air to escape at the sides of the tongue. In English there is only one such sound, which is alveolar /l/ (as at the start of lamp). Sometimes is grouped with approximants.
Approximants do not impede the flow of air. They are all voiced but are counted as consonants chiefly because of how they function in syllables. They are:
Bilabial /w/ (as in water)
Alveolar /r/ (as in road)
Palatal /j/ (as in yet)
هذه موجودة ص30
examples
Describe the sound /p/ (notice the use of slashes when sounds are transcribed.
/p/ a voiceless bilabial stop consonant
/d/ a voiced alveolar stop consonant
Please refer to the chart
The rule is voicing +place +manner +sound type
Describe the sound /p/ (notice the use of slashes when sounds are transcribed.
/p/ a voiceless bilabial stop consonant
/d/ a voiced alveolar stop consonant
Please refer to the chart
The rule is voicing +place +manner +sound type
Vowel description
English has twelve vowel sounds. In the table above they are divided into seven short and five long vowels. An alternative way of organizing them is according to where (in the mouth) they are produced. This method allows us to describe them as front, central and back. We can qualify them further by how high the tongue and lower jaw are when we make these vowel sounds, and by whether our lips are rounded or spread, and finally by whether they are short or long. This scheme shows the following arrangement:
English has twelve vowel sounds. In the table above they are divided into seven short and five long vowels. An alternative way of organizing them is according to where (in the mouth) they are produced. This method allows us to describe them as front, central and back. We can qualify them further by how high the tongue and lower jaw are when we make these vowel sounds, and by whether our lips are rounded or spread, and finally by whether they are short or long. This scheme shows the following arrangement:
Front vowels
Front vowels
/i:/ - cream, seen (long high front spread vowel)
/ɪ /- bit, silly (short high front spread vowel)
/ɛ/ - bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/
/æ/. cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/
Front vowels
/i:/ - cream, seen (long high front spread vowel)
/ɪ /- bit, silly (short high front spread vowel)
/ɛ/ - bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/
/æ/. cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/
Central vowels
/ʒ:/- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /ə:/
/ə/ - about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the
neutral vowel sound – it never occurs in a stressed position.
/ʌ/ - cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain.
/ʒ:/- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /ə:/
/ə/ - about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the
neutral vowel sound – it never occurs in a stressed position.
/ʌ/ - cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain.
Back vowels
Back vowels
/u:/ - boob, glue (long high back rounded vowel)
/ʊ/ - put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/
/ɔ:/ - corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /oː/
/ɒ/- dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/
/ɑ:/ - hard, far (long low back spread vowel)
Back vowels
/u:/ - boob, glue (long high back rounded vowel)
/ʊ/ - put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/
/ɔ:/ - corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /oː/
/ɒ/- dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/
/ɑ:/ - hard, far (long low back spread vowel)
Central vowels
/ʒ:/- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /ə:/
/ə/ - about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the
neutral vowel sound – it never occurs in a stressed position.
/ʌ/ - cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain.
/ʒ:/- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /ə:/
/ə/ - about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the
neutral vowel sound – it never occurs in a stressed position.
/ʌ/ - cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain.
Phones and Allophones
Phonemes are not physical sounds. They are abstract mental representations of the phonological units of a language. Phones are considered to be any single speech sound of which phonemes are made. Phonemes are a family of phones regarded as a single sound and represented by the same symbol. The different phones that are the realization of a phoneme are called allophones of that phoneme. The use of allophones is not random, but rule-governed. No one is taught these rules as they are learned subconsciously when the native language is acquired. To distinguish between a phoneme and its allophones, I will use slashes // to enclose phonemes and brackets [] to enclose allophones or phones. For example, [i] and [ĩ] are allophones of the phoneme /i/; [ɪ] and [ɪ̃] are allophones of the phoneme /ɪ/.
Phonemes are not physical sounds. They are abstract mental representations of the phonological units of a language. Phones are considered to be any single speech sound of which phonemes are made. Phonemes are a family of phones regarded as a single sound and represented by the same symbol. The different phones that are the realization of a phoneme are called allophones of that phoneme. The use of allophones is not random, but rule-governed. No one is taught these rules as they are learned subconsciously when the native language is acquired. To distinguish between a phoneme and its allophones, I will use slashes // to enclose phonemes and brackets [] to enclose allophones or phones. For example, [i] and [ĩ] are allophones of the phoneme /i/; [ɪ] and [ɪ̃] are allophones of the phoneme /ɪ/.
Minimal Pairs
Minimal pairs are words with different meanings that have the same sounds except for one. These contrasting sounds can either be consonants or vowels. The words pin and bin, time and dime are minimal pairs because they are exactly the same except for the first sound.
Another feature of minimal pairs is overlapping distribution. Sounds that occur in phonetic environments that are identical are said to be in overlapping distribution. The sounds of [ɪn] from pin and bin are in overlapping distribution because they occur in both words. The same is true for three and through. The sounds of [θr] is in overlapping distribution because they occur in both words as well.
Minimal pairs are words with different meanings that have the same sounds except for one. These contrasting sounds can either be consonants or vowels. The words pin and bin, time and dime are minimal pairs because they are exactly the same except for the first sound.
Another feature of minimal pairs is overlapping distribution. Sounds that occur in phonetic environments that are identical are said to be in overlapping distribution. The sounds of [ɪn] from pin and bin are in overlapping distribution because they occur in both words. The same is true for three and through. The sounds of [θr] is in overlapping distribution because they occur in both words as well.
Assimilation in English
An interesting observation of assimilation rules is evidenced in the formation of plurals and the past tense in English. When pluralizing nouns, the last letter is pronounced as either [s], [z], or [əz]. When forming past tenses of verbs, the -ed ending is pronounced as either [t], [d], [əd]. If you were to sort words into three columns, you would be able to tell why certain words are followed by certain sounds
An interesting observation of assimilation rules is evidenced in the formation of plurals and the past tense in English. When pluralizing nouns, the last letter is pronounced as either [s], [z], or [əz]. When forming past tenses of verbs, the -ed ending is pronounced as either [t], [d], [əd]. If you were to sort words into three columns, you would be able to tell why certain words are followed by certain sounds
Syllable Structure
There are three peaks to a syllable: nucleus (vowel), onset (consonant before nucleus) and coda (consonant after nucleus.) The onset and coda are both optional, meaning that a syllable could contain a vowel and nothing else. The nucleus is required in every syllable by definition. The order of the peaks is always onset - nucleus - coda. All languages permit open syllables (Consonant + Vowel), but not all languages allow closed syllables (Consonant + Vowel + Consonant).
There are three peaks to a syllable: nucleus (vowel), onset (consonant before nucleus) and coda (consonant after nucleus.) The onset and coda are both optional, meaning that a syllable could contain a vowel and nothing else. The nucleus is required in every syllable by definition. The order of the peaks is always onset - nucleus - coda. All languages permit open syllables (Consonant + Vowel), but not all languages allow closed syllables (Consonant + Vowel + Consonant).
End of lecture one
Try to read the chapters mentioned above and try to practice doing the easy activities in the book at the end of each chapter.
Try to read the chapters mentioned above and try to practice doing the easy activities in the book at the end of each chapter.
واخيرا اعتذر عن أي تقصير
تعليقات